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со всех языков на все языки

to maintain military forces

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1 force

1. n
1) сила, мощь

2) действенность; действие, воздействие (соглашения, закона и т.п.)

3) применение силы, насилие, принуждение

4) pl войска, вооруженные силы; вооружения

5) группа

6) сила (производительная, политическая и т.п.); фактор

7) численность

8) (the Force) полиция (особ. Великобритании)

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to abandon the use of force — отказываться от применения силы

to abstain from force — воздерживаться от применения силы

to acquire constitutional force — приобретать конституционную силу

to alert one's armed forces — приводить вооруженные силы в боевую готовность

to apply force — применять силу

to authorize the use of force — санкционировать применение силы

to avoid force — избегать применения силы

to awaken forces — пробуждать силы

to balance conventional forces — устанавливать равновесие обычных вооружений ( в Европе)

to be in force — иметь (юридическую) силу; оставаться в силе

to be the first to use force — использовать силу первым

to beef up one's military forces — укреплять свои вооруженные силы

to believe in force — быть сторонником применения насилия

to bring an agreement into force — вводить соглашение в силу

to build up military forces — наращивать военную мощь; сосредоточивать войска

to cease to be in force — утрачивать силу

to change the international balance of forces — изменять международное соотношение сил

to clear rebel forces from somewhere — очищать какой-л. район от войск мятежников

to come into force — вступать в силу

to commit US forces to the Gulf — направлять вооруженные силы США в район Персидского залива

to consolidate forces — консолидировать силы

to continue in force — оставаться в силе; действовать (о законе и т.п.)

to cut back the forces — сокращать силы

to disband / to dismantle forces — демобилизовывать / распускать войска

to distort the balance of forces — искажать соотношение сил

to do work for security forces — сотрудничать с силами безопасности

to encourage all progressive forces (to) — поощрять / поддерживать все прогрессивные силы

to endorse the use of military force — одобрять применение военной силы

to enhance the imbalance in military forces — увеличивать разрыв в вооруженных силах

to enter a city in force — брать город приступом; вводить в город крупные воинские формирования

to enter into force — вступать в силу

to expand one's armed forces — увеличивать свои вооруженные силы

to form a new invasion force — формировать интервенционный корпус

to forswear the use of force — отказываться от использования силы

to give freer rein to market forces — давать большую свободу силам рынка

to have binding force — иметь обязательную силу

to have no force — быть недействительным; не иметь силы

to improve one's defense forces — совершенствовать свои силы самообороны

to improve the safety of the UN forces — укреплять безопасность сил ООН

to join forces — объединяться; объединять силы

to join forces with smb — объединять силы с кем-л.

to join the forces — вступать в армию

to keep forces on red alert — держать вооруженные силы в состоянии повышенной боевой готовности

to limit forces — ограничивать численность войск

to lose legal force — утрачивать законную силу

to maintain military forces — содержать войска

to maintain the balance of forces — поддерживать равновесие / соотношение сил

to mandate a multinational force — санкционировать создание многонациональных сил

to mass forces — сосредоточивать войска

to modernize one's forces — модернизировать свои вооруженные силы

to order the armed forces into action — отдавать приказ войскам перейти к боевым действиям

to place forces on alert — приводить вооруженные силы в состояние боевой готовности

to put down by brutal force — подавлять грубой силой

to put in force — осуществлять, проводить в жизнь; вводить в действие

to put the armed forces on full alert — приводить вооруженные силы в состояние полной боевой готовности

to rally forces — сплачивать силы

to reduce conventional forces in / throughout Europe — сокращать количество войск и обычных вооружений в Европе

to refrain from using force — воздерживаться от применения силы

to rely on military force — полагаться на военную силу

to remain in force — оставаться в силе, действовать (о законе и т.п.)

to remove smb by force — свергать кого-л.; насильственно отстранять кого-л. от власти

to reshape one's armed forces — реорганизовывать свои вооруженные силы

to resort to force — прибегать к силе / насилию

to retaliate with military force — наносить ответный военный удар

to rule a country by sheer force — управлять страной, опираясь исключительно на силу

to seek negotiated reductions in conventional forces — добиваться сокращения обычных вооружений путем переговоров

to send an observer force into a country — направлять группу наблюдателей в страну

to send in ground forces — направлять сухопутные войска в страну

to settle smth by military force — решать что-л. с помощью применения военной силы

to set up one's own armed forces — создавать собственные вооруженные силы

to shore up forces — укреплять силы

to strengthen the forces of peace — укреплять силы мира

to suppress smth by brute force — подавлять что-л. грубой силой

to switch forces — перебрасывать вооруженные силы

to take on the peace-keeping force — принимать бой с силами по поддержанию мира

to take recourse to force — прибегать к силе / насилию

to take smth by force — захватывать что-л. силой

to thin one's forces — сокращать свои войска

to threaten force — угрожать применением силы

to trim one's forces — сокращать численность своих войск

to unite forces — объединять силы

to use force against smb — использовать силу против кого-л.

to use armed forces — использовать вооруженные силы

to use excessive force — злоупотреблять применением силы

to use reasonable force — применять силу оправданно

to weaken forces — ослаблять силы

to withdraw forces from... — выводить войска из...

- Determined Force
- accelerated development of productive forces
- active forces
- activities of forces
- actual force
- advance force
- aggressive forces
- aggressor forces
- air forces
- alignment of forces
- alliance of the forces
- allied forces
- allocation of forces
- anti-aircraft forces
- anti-colonialist forces
- anti-fascist forces
- anti-government forces
- anti-kidnap force
- anti-monopoly forces
- anti-national forces
- anti-popular forces
- anti-war forces
- armed forces of a country
- armed forces
- assault force
- Atlantic Nuclear Force
- balance of forces

- basic productive force
- binding force
- bomber forces
- border forces
- border-security forces
- brutal force
- build-up forces
- build-up of forces
- by force
- by sheer force
- carrier striking force
- Central American task force
- character of the armed forces
- coalition forces
- combatant forces
- combined forces
- Commonwealth Military Force
- competing forces
- competition forces
- compulsory force
- conditions of entry into force
- conservative forces
- consistent force
- consolidation of all forces
- contributor to the multinational force
- Conventional Force in Europe
- conventional forces
- correlation of forces
- crack forces
- cross-border force
- crude force
- deep cuts in conventional forces
- defense forces
- democratic forces
- determining force in social development
- deterrent force
- directing force
- display of force
- disquiet in the armed forces
- division of political forces
- dominant force
- economic force
- effective forces
- elemental forces of nature
- enforcement forces
- entry into force

- external force
- extraction force
- follow-on force
- force is not the answer
- force of a clause
- force of a treaty
- force of an agreement
- force of argument
- force of arms
- force of example
- force of law
- force of occupation
- force of public opinion
- force of weaponry
- force to be reckoned with
- forces in the field
- forces of aggression and war
- forces of flexible response
- forces of internal and external reaction
- forward-based forces
- free play of democratic forces
- full force of the treaty
- general purpose forces
- ground forces
- guiding force
- hired labor force
- IFOR
- in force
- in full force
- independent force
- inequitable relationship of forces
- influential force
- intermediate range forces
- international balance of forces
- international peace-keeping forces
- internationalist forces
- interplay of political forces
- interposing force
- invasion forces
- irregular forces
- joint NATO armed forces
- labor force
- land forces
- landing force
- lawful use of force
- leading force in smth
- leading force
- left-wing forces
- legal force
- liberation forces
- local forces
- logistical forces
- main force
- major force
- mandatory force
- manifestation of force
- material force
- member of a peace-keeping force
- military force
- monetary forces
- motive force
- moving force
- multilateral forces
- mutinous forces
- mutual non-use of military force
- national forces
- national liberation forces
- national political forces
- natural forces
- nature of forces
- naval forces
- noneconomic forces
- non-use of force
- nuclear forces
- nuclear strike force
- obligatory force of international treaties
- observer force
- occupation force
- occupying force
- of legal force
- on entry into force
- operation of market forces
- operational forces
- opposing forces
- organizing force
- pan-Arab force
- paramilitary forces
- patriotic forces
- peace forces
- Peace Implementation Force
- peace-keeping forces
- peace-safeguarding forces
- people's armed forces of liberation
- phased withdrawal of the forces
- police force
- policy of force
- political force
- posture of forces
- potent force
- powerful force
- professionally led force
- progressive forces
- pro-independence forces
- proportions of forces
- punitive forces
- quick-reaction force
- Rapid Deployment Force
- Rapid Reaction Force
- rapid-action force
- RDF
- rebel forces
- recourse to force
- reduction in the armed forces
- regional security forces
- regrouping of forces
- relationship of forces
- reserve force
- reserve of the forces
- resistance forces
- resort to force
- retaliatory forces
- revanchist forces
- revolutionary forces
- rightist forces
- right-wing forces
- rough parity of forces
- ruling forces
- sea forces
- sea-based strategic missile forces
- second-strike force
- security forces
- self-defense forces
- SFOR
- shifts in the alignment of forces
- show of force

- size of the armed forces
- social and political forces
- social forces
- socio-political forces
- special forces
- spontaneous force
- Stabilization Force
- strategic air forces
- strategic forces
- Strategic Rocket Force
- strength of the armed forces
- strike force
- striking force
- suppression by force
- task force
- territorial force
- theater nuclear forces
- third force
- threat of force

- TNF
- ultra-right forces
- UN buffer force
- UN Emergency Force
- UN observer force
- unification of forces
- unification of the armed force under a single command
- unified forces
- unilateral cuts in smb's forces
- United Nation Protection Force
- United Nations forces
- United Nations peace-keeping forces
- unity of forces
- UNPROFOR
- use of military forces
- use of preemptive force
- vital force
- voluntary military forces
- weakening of forces
- with political forces splintering
- withdrawal of forces
- without resort to force
- work force
- world market forces 2. v
заставлять, принуждать, вынуждать

to force smb out — 1) вытеснять кого-л. 2) отстранять кого-л. от власти

Politics english-russian dictionary > force
2 Historical Portugal

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal
3 сила сил·а

1) (насилие) force

захватить / овладеть силой — to take by force, to lay violent hands (оп)

использовать силу — to use force

копить силы — to build up one's strength

обращаться к силе — to take recourse to force

подавлять силой — to put down by force

прибегать к силе — to resort to force

применять силу — to apply / to use force

применить силу для подавления беспорядков — to commit an act of coercion

боевая сила — militant force

взрывная сила — explosive force

военная сила — military force / power; the sabre перен.

делать ставку на военную силу — to stake on military strength

полагаться на военную силу — to rely on military force

восприятие военной силы — perception of military strength

ударная сила — assault force

демонстрация силы — demonstration / show of force, show-down of strength, flag-waving exercise

законное применение силы — legitimate use of force

неприменение силы — nonuse of force

обращение к силе — recourse to force

незаконное обращение к силе — unlawful recourse to force

подавление силой — suppression by force

примат силы — primacy of force

применение силы — use of force

призвать к применению силы — to make an appeal to force

без применения силы — without the use of force

отказ от применения силы — renunciation of the use of force

противник применения силы при решении конфликтов — soft-liner

силой оружия — by force of arms / weaponry

с позиции силы — from a position of strength

угроза силой — threat of force

воздерживаться от угрозы силой или её применения — to refrain from the threat or use of force

исключить угрозу силой или ее применение — to eliminate the threat or use of force

2) (могущество, авторитет) power, strength; (способность влиять) force

юр. не признавать юридической силы за завоеваниями государства — to render invalid conquest on the part of the state

набирать полную силу — to gather full strength

общими силами — with joint forces, by joining hands

расчёт на свои силы — self-reliance

сила довода — force of argument

силы инерции — forces of inertia

сила общественного воздействия — power of public / social influence

сила примера — power of example

сила слов — strength of words

сила традиций — force of traditions

сила убеждения — force of conviction

3) мн. (войска) forces

военно-воздушные силы — air forces, winged arm

английские военно-воздушные силы — Royal Air Force

военно-морские силы — naval forces / formations; Naval Establishment амер.

численность военно-морских сил — naval strength

вооружённые силы — armed / military forces

модернизировать вооружённые силы — to modernize armed forces

наращивать вооружённые силы (в каком-л. районе) — to expand military presence, to build up military force

сократить вооружённые силы — to reduce military forces

укрепить вооружённые силы — to bolster (up) the forces

вооружённые силы ООН — UN Emergency Force

вооружённые силы ООН по поддержанию мира — UN Peace-keeping force

вооружённые силы, оснащённые обычным оружием — conventional operational forces

Чрезвычайные вооружённые силы ООН — UN Emergency Force

нерегулярные вооружённые силы — irregular forces

национальные вооружённые силы — national defence forces

неядерные вооружённые силы (государства) — nonnuclear armed forces

Объединённые вооружённые силы (НАТО) — (NATO) joint Armed Forces

боевые возможности вооружённых сил — characteristics of the armed forces

вид вооружённых сил — fighting service

взаимный вывод вооружённых сил государств (из определённой зоны) — disengagement

деятельность вооружённых сил — activities of the forces, force activity

диспропорция в вооружённых силах — disparity of forces

равновесие вооружённых сил — balance of forces

поддерживать равновесие (вооружённых) сил — to maintain the balance of forces

разъединение вооружённых сил — military disengagement

сбалансированное сокращение вооружённых сил — balanced reduction of armed forces

соотношение вооружённых сил — proportions / ratio / relationship of armed forces

соотношение вооружённых сил, оснащённых обычными средствами ведения войны — balance of conventional forces

соотношение вооружённых сил, оснащённых ядерным оружием — balance of nuclear forces

численность вооружённых сил — size / strength of the armed forces

поддерживать численность вооружённых сил — to maintain military strength

уровень вооружённых сил — forces level, level of (armed) forces

главные силы — major forces

значительными силами — in forces

иностранные военные силы — forces from outside the area

межарабские силы безопасности — inter-Arab security forces

межгосударственные силы по поддержанию мира — multinational peace-keeping forces

многонациональные силы — multinational forces

превосходящие силы — superior forces

соединённые силы — combined forces

стратегические силы — strategic forces

наращивание стратегических сил — strategic build up

стратегические наступательные силы — strategic offensive forces

стратегические ракетные силы морского базирования — sea-based / submarine-based strategic missile forces

сухопутные силы — ground / land forces

ядерные силы — nuclear forces

многосторонние ядерные силы — multinational / multilateral nuclear forces

ядерные силы морского базирования — sea-based nuclear forces

силы быстрого развёртывания — quick / rapid deployment forces

силы быстрого реагирования (НАТО) — rapid reaction force

силы возмездия / для нанесения ответного удара — retaliatory forces

силы для нанесения стратегических ударов — strategic striking forces

силы обеих сторон — opposing forces

силы общего назначения — general purpose forces

силы оперативного развёртывания — operational deployment forces

силы особого назначения — task forces

силы передового базирования — forward-based systems, FBS

силы по поддержанию мира — peace-keeping / peace-safeguarding forces

силы сдерживания — deterrent forces

сохранение минимальных сил ядерного сдерживания — preserving of minimal nuclear deterrence

4) мн. (часть общества) forces

антивоенные силы — anti-war forces

антинародные силы — anti-popular / anti-national forces

борющиеся силы — competing forces

влиятельные силы — powerful forces

демократические силы — democratic forces

интеллектуальные силы — intellectual forces

неравные силы — unequal forces

клерикальные силы — clerical forces

консервативные силы — conservative forces

левые силы — Left(-wing) forces

миролюбивые силы — peace(-loving) forces

национально-патриотические силы — national-patriotic forces

правые силы — Right(-wing) forces

прогрессивные силы общества — progressive forces of society

консолидация прогрессивных сил — consolidation of progressive forces

противоборствующие силы — contending forces

реакционные силы — reactionary forces, forces of reaction

реваншистские силы — revanchist forces

революционно-демократические силы — revolutionary-democratic forces

революционные силы — revolutionary forces

наращивание сил — build-up of forces

перевес сил — whip-hand

равновесие сил — parity of forces

примерное равновесие сил — rough parity of forces

распределение сил — allocation of forces

расстановка сил на международной / мировой арене — correlation of forces on the international arena / world scene

силы агрессии и войны — forces of aggression and war

обуздывать силы агрессии — to curb the forces of aggression

силы возмездия — retaliatory forces

силы национально-освободительного движения — forces of the national liberation movement

силы социального прогресса — forces of social progress

союз сил социального прогресса — alliance of the forces of social progress

соотношение сил — correlation / proportion / relationship of forces

неравное соотношение сил — inequitable relationship of forces

существующее соотношение сил — present force relationship

общее изменение в соотношении сил на мировой арене — overall shift in the balance of world forces

сдвиги в соотношении сил — shifts in the alignment of forces

5) (источник какой-л. деятельности, могущества) force

движущая сила — driving / motive force

движущие силы истории — driving forces of history

движущие силы экономического развития — prime movements in economic development

направляющая / руководящая сила — directing / guiding / leading force

непреодолимая сила — irresistable force

объединяющая сила — unifying force

определяющая сила общественного развития — determining / decisive force in social development

организующая сила — organizing force

побудительная сила — impelling force

принудительная сила — compulsory / coercive power

производительные силы — productive forces

преобразование в производительных силах — transformation of the productive forces

развитие производительных сил — development of productive forces

размещение производительных сил — location of productive forces

противодействующая сила — counterforce

рабочая сила — manpower; labour

дешёвая рабочая сила — cheap labour

требуется рабочая сила — hands wanted

избыточная рабочая сила — redundant manpower, abundant labour

квалифицированная рабочая сила — skilled manpower, experienced labour force

наёмная рабочая сила, занятая в сфере обслуживания — service employees

избыток рабочей силы — surplus of manpower

наём рабочей силы — hiring of labour

наличие рабочей силы — availability of labour

недостаток / нехватка рабочей силы — shortage of manpower / labour

самостоятельная политическая сила — independent political force

сдерживающая сила — deterrent power

созидательная сила общества — creative force of society

стихийные силы — spontaneous forces

творческая сила — creative power

узаконенные силы — institutionalized forces

ультраправые силы — ultra-right forces

6) (способность человека к какой-л. деятельности) power, strength, energy

напрягать все силы — to make strenuous efforts

отдавать все силы — to devote all one's energies (to)

посвятить все силы — to dedicate all (one's) energy (to)

моральная сила — spirit

подавляющая сила — overriding power

сила воли — strength of will, will-power

7) (интенсивность, напряжённость) force, power, intensity

сила взрыва — force of an explosion

8) (материальное начало) forces

силы природы — natural forces

силы созидания — creative forces

в силу чего-л. — owing to smth., by virtue of smth.

со свежими силами — with renewed vigour

9) юр. (правомочность) force, power, validity

быть в силе (о договоре и т.п.) — to be in effect

вводить в силу (договор, документ и т.п.) — to put in force

вновь входить в силу, обретать силу (о законе и т.п.) — to revive

вступать в силу (о законе, резолюции и т.п.) — to come / to enter into force, to become effective / operative, to take action / effect, to go into operation, to enure

вступить в силу с момента / после подписания (о договоре, соглашении) — to enter into force on / upon signature

вступать в силу с (такого-то числа) — to take effect from the date...

иметь силу (о законе, соглашении и т.п.) — to be effective, to stand good / in force

иметь законную силу — to be valid

иметь одинаковую силу (о документе) — to be equally authentic

иметь равную силу — to have equal validity (with)

лишить законной силы — to invalidate, to mullify

не иметь силы (о договоре, документе и т.п.) — to have no force

не иметь законной силы — to be null and void

оставаться в силе (о договоре, документе и т.п.) — to continue / to remain in force, to stand good / in force; (о судебном решении, приговорах и т.п.) to remain in force / valid

потерять / утратить силу (о документе, договоре и т.п.) — to cease to be in force

сохранять силу — to remain valid

считать не имеющим силы — to consider (null and) void

терять силу — to become invalid, to lapse

обратная сила — retroactivity

иметь обратную силу — to be retroactive

имеющий обратную силу — retroactive; ex post facto лат.

не иметь обратной силы — to have no retroactive effect

обязательная сила (права, договора и т.п.) — binding force

обязательная сила международных договоров — obligatory / hinding force of international treaties

потерять (свою) обязательную силу — to lose (one's) binding force

придать обязательную силу договору — to impart the binding force to a treaty

полная сила договора — full force of the treaty

фактическая законная сила — actual authority

юридическая сила — legal force, validity

быть лишённой юридической силы — to be deprived of legal validity

юридическая сила принятых решений — validity of adopted decisions

вступающий в силу (2 октября) — effective (2nd October)

вступающий немедленно в силу (о законе, договоре и т.п.) — self-executing

вступающий в силу лишь в будущем — executory

имеющий силу (о договоре, соглашении и т.п.) — in force

имеющий законную силу — authentic, of legal force, executory, effective, in force, effectual, valid in force

имеющий исковую силу — enforceable

не имеющий законной силы — invalid / inoperative

считать не имеющим законной силы (о договорах, соглашениях и т.п.) — to consider null and void

потерявший законную силу — stale

вступление в силу (договора, соглашения и т.п.) — entry into force

условия вступления в силу (договора, соглашения и т.п.) — conditions of entry into force

придание законной силы — legalization

с момента вступления в силу (о договоре, соглашении и т.п.) — on the entry into force

сила закона — power / force of the law

Russian-english dctionary of diplomacy > сила сил·а
4 force

1. n

1) сила, воздействие

2) действенность; действительность

- entry into force

- on the entry into force

- conditions of entry into force

- full force of the treaty

- obligatory force of international treaties

- in force

- be in force

- cease to be in force

- enter into force

- come force

- enter into force on signature

- have no force

- put in force

- continue force

- remain in force

3) насилие, принуждение

- primacy of force

- by force

- use of force

- renunciation of the use of force

- non-use of force

- policy of force

- show of force

- suppression by force

- threat of force

- refrain from the threat or use of force

- unlawful recourse to force

- resort to force

- apply force

- take by force

4) обыкн. pl войска, вооружённые силы

- balance of forces

- maintain the balance of forces

- balance of nuclear forces

- in forces

- allocation of forces

- build-up of forces

- correlation of forces

- proportions of forces

- relationship of forces

- inequitable relationship of force

- disparity of forces

- rough parity of forces

- nature and posture of forces

- shifts in the alignment of forces

- intrinsic capabilities of forces

- activities of forces

- forces from outside the area

5) сила (рабочая)

6) обыкн. pl группировки в обществе, движущие силы

- correlation of forces on the international arena

- correlation of forces on the world scene

- curb the forces of aggression

- alliance of the forces of social progress

•

- strengthen strategic forces

- military force

- directing force

- strategic forces

- powerful forces

- multinational nuclear forces

- motive force

- assault force

- border-security forces

- balanced reduction of the armed forces

- economical forces

- nuclear strike force

- paramilitary forces

- guiding force

- balance of conventional forces

- sea forces

- active duty ground forces

- landing forces

- ground forces

- compulsory force

- allied forces

- forces level

- binding force

- size of the armed forces

- labour force

- force of public opinion

- ratio of the armed forces

- limitation of the number of ground forces

- force of of a document

- of legal force

- experienced labour force

- ground forces manpower

- deterrent forces

- military forces

- peace-keeping forces

- force of an agreement a document

- relationship of the armed forces

- employed labour force

- exceed the forces level

- imbalance in ground forces

- voluntary task forces

- militant force

- legal force

- residual ground forces level

- characteristics of the armed forces

- force of argument

- logistical forces

- second-strike force

- proportions of the armed forces

- effective forces

- conservative forces

- industrial reserve force

- naval forces

- task forces

- peace-safeguarding forces

- modernize strategic forces

- Right-wing Forces SPS Russia

- Armed Forces of the Russian Federation

- transformations of the productive forces

- armed forces

- rapid deployment forces

- rely on military force

- current forces levels

- bomber forces

- productive forces

- agreed forces levels

- conventional forces

- liberation forces

- neutral forces

- character of the armed forces

- national forces

- reduce military forces

- active forces

- lose one's binding force

- Joint Armed Forces

- strategic striking forces

- conventional operational forces

- monetary forces

- sea-based nuclear forces

- operational deployment forces

- number of the armed forces

- retaliatory forces

- limit conventional forces

- theatre nuclear forces

- strength of the armed forces

- competing forces

- contending forces

2. v

заставлять, принуждать

- force a bill through

- force concessions from smb.

- force a reform through

- force the market

- force to pay

- force up

- force down

English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > force
5 force

I n

1. сила, міць

2. дійсність, дієвість

3. pl війська, збройні сили

4. насилля

- active armed forces регулярні війська

- agree forces levels узгоджені рівні збройних сил

- air forces військово-повітряні сили

- allied forces союзні війська

- anti forces сили супротивника

- armed forces збройні сили/ війська

- assault force ударна сила

- binding forces обов'язкова сила

- border-security forces прикордонні війська

- competing forces сили, що борються/ змагаються

- contending forces сили, що борються/ змагаються

- conservative force консервативна сила

- current forces levels існуючі рівні збройних сил

- deterrent forces сили залякування/ стримування

- environmental forces природні ресурси

- liberation forces сили визволення

- militant force бойова сила/ міць

- military forces збройні сили, війська

- milinational nuclear force багатонаціональні ядерні сили

- national forces національні збройні сили

- natural force сила природи

- naval forces військово-морські сили

- neutral forces війська нейтральних держав

- nuclear strike force ядерна ударна міць

- obligatory forces обов'язкова сила

- peacekeeping forces сили підтримки миру

- peace-safeguarding forces сили на сторожі миру

- powerful forces впливові сили

- present force relationship існуюче співвідношення сил

- productive force виробнича сила

- quick reaction forces сили швидкого розгорання/ реагування

- rapid deployment forces сили швидкого розгорання/ реагування

- sea forces військово-морські сили

- second-strike force сили для нанесення удару у відповідь

- strategic forces стратегічні сили

- strategic striking forces сили для нанесення стратегічних ударів

- task forces сили особливого призначення; спеціальна група цільового призначення

- theatre nuclear forces (TNF) ядерна зброя театру військових дій (об'єднаних військових сил НАТО)

- voluntary task forces добровільні оперативні служби

- force of an agreement чинність угоди

- force of argument сила переконання

- forces from outside the area іноземні збройні сили

- force of public opinion сила/ вплив громадської думки

- full force of the treaty повна сила договору

- balance of forces співвідношення сил; рівновага сил

- balance of nuclear forces рівновага/ баланс сил, забезпечених ядерною зброєю

- buildup of forces нарощування сил

- correlation of forces співвідношення сил

- disparity of forces диспропорція у збройних силах

- entry into force набуття (договірної) чинності

- imbalance in ground forces відсутність рівноваги у сухопутних військах

- intrinsic capabilities of forces притаманні збройним силам бойові можливості

- level of forces рівень збройних сил

- non-use of force незастосування сили

- policy of force політика з позиції сили, політика сили

- primacy of force примат сили

- proportions of forces співвідношення сил

- ratio of forces співвідношення сил

- relationship of forces співвідношення сил

- renunciation of force відмова від застосування сили

- renunciation of the use of force відмова від застосування сили

- show of force демонстрація сили

- size of the armed forces чисельність збройних сил

- strength of the armed forces чисельність збройних сил

- suppresion by force придушення силою

- threat of force погроза силою

- threat or use of force погроза силою чи застосування сили

- use of force застосування сили

- to be in force бути чинним (про документу договір тощо)

- to cease to be in force втратити чинність (про документ, договір тощо)

- to come into force набути чинності (про документ, договір тощо)

- to enter into force набути чинності (про документ, договір тощо)

- to have no force бути недійсним/ нечинним (про документ, договір тощо)

- to limit conventional force обмежити чисельність військ. озброєних звичайною зброєю

- to maintain the balance of forces підтримувати рівновагу сил

- to put in force робити чинним, вводити в дію/ в життя

- to reduce military forces скорочувати збройні сили

- to refrain from the threat or use of force стримуватися від погрози силою чи її застосування

- to remain in force залишатися чинним, діяти (про документ, договір тощо)

- to resort to force застосовувати силу/ насилля

- to take by force захопити, заволодіти силою

- to take recourse to force застосовувати силу/ насилля

- to use force застосувати силу

- by force силоміць, насильно

- by force and arms силою зброї

- in force діючий/ чинний (про документ, договір тощо)

II v примушувати

- to force a bill through протягнути законопроект (про парламент тощо)

- to force concessions from smbd. силою змусити когось піти на поступки

- to force a reform through протягнути реформу (про парламент, конгрес тощо)

English-Ukrainian diplomatic dictionary > force
6 estrecho

adj.

1 narrow, tight, close, constrained.

2 intimate.

m.

strait, sound, channel connecting two seas, straits.

pres.indicat.

1^st person singular (yo) present indicative of spanish verb: estrechar.

* * *

estrecho

► adjetivo

1 (poco ancho) narrow

2 (ropa) tight; (calzado) tight, small

3 (habitación) cramped, poky, small

4 (sin espacio) packed, jam-packed

5 figurado (amistad etc) close, intimate

6 figurado (mezquino) mean

7 figurado (estricto) narrow, rigid

8 familiar figurado (conservador con el sexo) prudish, strait-laced

► nombre masculino estrecho

1 GEOGRAFÍA strait, straits plural

\

FRASEOLOGÍA

ser estrecho,-a de miras figurado to be narrow-minded

el Estrecho de Gibraltar the Straits of Gibraltar

————————

estrecho

► nombre masculino

1 GEOGRAFÍA strait, straits plural

* * *

adj.

1) narrow, tight

2) close

* * *
estrecho, -a
1. ADJ

1) (=angosto) [calle, pasillo] narrow; [zapato, ropa] tight

la falda me va muy estrecha — the skirt is very tight on me

es muy estrecho de hombros — he's very narrow-shouldered, he's got very narrow shoulders

estábamos muy estrechos en el asiento trasero — it was a tight squeeze o we had to squeeze up tight in the back seat

2) [amistad, relación] close

trabajan en estrecha colaboración con el comité — they work in close collaboration with the committee

la sometieron a una estrecha vigilancia — they kept her under close supervision o a close watch

3) [sexualmente] prudish, prim

4) [de mentalidad] narrow-minded

estrecho de miras o mente — narrow-minded

2. SM

1) (Geog) strait, straits pl

estrecho de Gibraltar — Strait(s) of Gibraltar

2) † (=aprieto) predicament

al estrecho — by force, under compulsion

poner a algn en el estrecho de hacer algo — to put sb in the position of having to do sth

3.

SM / F * prude

no te hagas la estrecha conmigo — don't act the prude with me

* * *
I
- cha adjetivo

1)

a) ( angosto) <calle/pasillo> narrow; < falda> tight

es estrecha de caderas — she has narrow hips

b) ( apretado) tight

íbamos muy estrechos — it was very cramped

2) <amistad/colaboración/vigilancia> close

3) ( limitado) < criterio> narrow

es muy estrecho de miras — he's very narrow-minded
II
masculino (Geog) strait, straits (pl)

el Estrecho de Magallanes — the Strait of Magellan

* * *
I
- cha adjetivo

1)

a) ( angosto) <calle/pasillo> narrow; < falda> tight

es estrecha de caderas — she has narrow hips

b) ( apretado) tight

íbamos muy estrechos — it was very cramped

2) <amistad/colaboración/vigilancia> close

3) ( limitado) < criterio> narrow

es muy estrecho de miras — he's very narrow-minded
II
masculino (Geog) strait, straits (pl)

el Estrecho de Magallanes — the Strait of Magellan

* * *

estrecho¹

¹ = sound, strait.

Ex: This guide provides brief descriptive information on the geomorphology and ecology of sounds, beaches, inlets, and dunes.

Ex: Any attack on Iran will require that military forces quickly deploy to Dubai to forestall the closing of the strait.

* Estrecho de Bering, el = Bering Straits, the.

* estrecho de Gibraltar, el = Strait of Gibraltar, the.

estrecho²

² = cramped, tight [tighter -comp., tightest -sup.], narrow [narrower -comp., narrowest -sup.].

Ex: Vissenbjerg Library, Funen, serving a population of 5,860 and converted to full-time status in 1980, is placed in a stagnant shopping centre in cramped conditions.

Ex: The platen was lashed up tight to the toe of the spindle by cords which connected hooks at its four corners to another set of hooks at the four lower corners of the hose.

Ex: The subject areas which such data bases cover may range from relatively narrow subjects, to interdisciplinary areas.

* con lazos muy estrechos = close-knit.

* en estrecha colaboración con = hand-in-glove with.

* estrecho de mente = narrow-minded.

* estrecho de miras = narrow-minded.

* muy estrecho = poky [pokier -comp., pokiest -sup.].

* * *

estrecho¹ - cha

adjective

A

1 (angosto) ‹calle/pasillo› narrow; ‹falda› tight

es estrecha de caderas she has narrow hips

2 (apretado) tight

la falda me queda estrecha de cintura the skirt's too tight around the waist

íbamos muy estrechos it was very cramped, we were very cramped

B ‹amistad/vínculo› close; ‹colaboración/vigilancia› close

mantienen estrechas relaciones con la organización they maintain close ties with the organization

este tema guarda una estrecha relación con el anterior this topic is closely linked to the previous one

C

1 (limitado) ‹criterio› narrow; ‹persona› narrow-minded

tiene horizontes muy estrechos he has a very limited o narrow outlook on life

2 ( fam) (mojigato) prudish, straitlaced

estrecho²

masculine

( Geog) strait, straits (pl)

el Estrecho de Gibraltar the Strait(s) of Gibraltar

el Estrecho de Magallanes the Strait of Magellan, the Magellan Strait

* * *

Del verbo estrechar: ( conjugate estrechar)

estrecho es:

1ª persona singular (yo) presente indicativo

estrechó es:

3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) pretérito indicativo

Multiple Entries:
estrechar
estrecho
estrechar ( conjugate estrechar) verbo transitivo
1
a) ‹falda/pantalones› to take … in;

‹ carretera› to make … narrower
b) ‹relaciones/lazos› to strengthen

2 (abrazar, apretar):
◊ la estrechó entre sus brazos he held her tightly in his arms;

me estrechó la mano he shook my hand
estrecharse verbo pronominal
1
a) [carretera/acera] to narrow, get narrower

b) [relaciones/lazos] to strengthen

2 ( recípr) ( apretarse):
◊ se estrechoon en un abrazo they embraced;

se estrechoon la mano they shook hands
estrecho 1
◊ - cha adjetivo

1 ‹calle/pasillo› narrow;
‹ falda› tight;
◊ íbamos muy estrechos it was very cramped

2 ‹amistad/colaboración/vigilancia› close
3 ( limitado) ‹ criterio› narrow;
◊ es muy estrecho de miras he's very narrow-minded

estrecho 2 sustantivo masculino (Geog) strait, straits (pl);
◊ el Eestrecho de Gibraltar the Strait(s) of Gibraltar

estrechar verbo transitivo
1 to make narrow
2 (la mano) to shake
3 (entre los brazos) to hug
4 el Gobierno estrechará lazos con Cuba, the Government will strengthen bonds with Cuba
estrecho,-a
I adjetivo
1 (espacio) narrow
2 (indumentaria) tight: esos pantalones te están estrechos, those trousers are too tight for you
3 (íntimo) close, intimate
II m Geog strait, straits pl; Estrecho de Gibraltar, the Strait(s) of Gibraltar

' estrecho' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
camino
- estrecha
- nado
- encajonar
- estrechar
- mira
- provinciano
English:
bottleneck
- channel
- close
- cramped
- insular
- intimate
- narrow
- narrow-minded
- small-minded
- sound
- strait
- tight
- blinkered
- clasp
- liaise
- slender
- slim

* * *

estrecho, -a

♦ adj

1. [de poca anchura] narrow;
[ropa] tight;
es estrecho de caderas he is narrow-hipped;

desde que he engordado toda la ropa me está estrecha since I put on weight, all my clothes have been too tight for me;

aquí se está muy estrecho it's very cramped in here;

íbamos muy estrechos en el autobús our bus was packed

2. [íntimo] close;

tengo una estrecha relación con él I have a close relationship with him;

el asunto tiene una estrecha relación con los juicios a la mafia the affair is closely tied up with the mafia trials;

ambos países mantienen estrechos lazos de amistad the two countries have close ties of friendship

3. [tacaño] miserly, mean

4. [rígido] strict;

serán sometidos a estrecha vigilancia they will be kept under close o strict surveillance;

estrecho de miras narrow-minded

5. Fam Pey [reprimido] prudish, hung-up

♦ nm,f
Fam Pey [reprimido] prude
♦ nm
[entre dos mares] strait(s)
Comp
el Estrecho de Bering the Bering Strait(s);
el Estrecho de Bonifacio the Strait of Boniface;

el Estrecho de Dardanelos the Dardanelles;

el Estrecho de Gibraltar the Strait(s) of Gibraltar;

el Estrecho de Magallanes the Strait(s) of Magellan;

el Estrecho de Mesina the Strait(s) of Messina;

el Estrecho de Ormuz the Strait(s) of Hormuz

* * *

estrecho

I adj

1 narrow;

estrecho de miras narrow-minded

2 ( apretado) tight;

el vestido me queda estrecho the dress is too tight

3 amistad close

4

:

estar o

ir estrechos be cramped (for space)

II m strait, straits pl ;

el Estrecho de Gibraltar the Strait(s) of Gibraltar;

Estrecho de Magallanes Magellan Straits

* * *

estrecho, - cha adj

1) : tight, narrow

2) íntimo: close

♦ estrechamente adv

estrecho nm

: strait, narrows

* * *

estrecho¹ adj

1. (en general) narrow

2. (ropa, zapato) tight

3. (amistad) close

estrecho² n strait / straits

Spanish-English dictionary > estrecho
7 миротворческие усилия
1. Erhaltung des Friedens
миротворческие усилия
—
[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

EN

peacekeeping
The activities to prevent, contain, moderate and/or terminate the hostilities between or within States, through the medium of an impartial third party intervention, organised and directed internationally. This intervention is conducted using military forces, police and civilians with the consent of the main belligerents, to complement the diplomatic conflict resolution process and, to restore and maintain peace. (Source: VCDS)
[http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

Тематики
- охрана окружающей среды
EN
- peacekeeping
DE
- Erhaltung des Friedens
FR
- maintien de la paix
Русско-немецкий словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > миротворческие усилия
8 maintien de la paix
1. миротворческие усилия
миротворческие усилия
—
[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

EN

peacekeeping
The activities to prevent, contain, moderate and/or terminate the hostilities between or within States, through the medium of an impartial third party intervention, organised and directed internationally. This intervention is conducted using military forces, police and civilians with the consent of the main belligerents, to complement the diplomatic conflict resolution process and, to restore and maintain peace. (Source: VCDS)
[http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

Тематики
- охрана окружающей среды
EN
- peacekeeping
DE
- Erhaltung des Friedens
FR
- maintien de la paix
Франко-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > maintien de la paix
9 Erhaltung des Friedens
1. миротворческие усилия
миротворческие усилия
—
[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

EN

peacekeeping
The activities to prevent, contain, moderate and/or terminate the hostilities between or within States, through the medium of an impartial third party intervention, organised and directed internationally. This intervention is conducted using military forces, police and civilians with the consent of the main belligerents, to complement the diplomatic conflict resolution process and, to restore and maintain peace. (Source: VCDS)
[http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

Тематики
- охрана окружающей среды
EN
- peacekeeping
DE
- Erhaltung des Friedens
FR
- maintien de la paix
Немецко-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > Erhaltung des Friedens
10 миротворческие усилия
1. peacekeeping
миротворческие усилия
—
[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

EN

peacekeeping
The activities to prevent, contain, moderate and/or terminate the hostilities between or within States, through the medium of an impartial third party intervention, organised and directed internationally. This intervention is conducted using military forces, police and civilians with the consent of the main belligerents, to complement the diplomatic conflict resolution process and, to restore and maintain peace. (Source: VCDS)
[http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

Тематики
- охрана окружающей среды
EN
- peacekeeping
DE
- Erhaltung des Friedens
FR
- maintien de la paix
Русско-английский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > миротворческие усилия
11 миротворческие усилия
1. maintien de la paix
миротворческие усилия
—
[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

EN

peacekeeping
The activities to prevent, contain, moderate and/or terminate the hostilities between or within States, through the medium of an impartial third party intervention, organised and directed internationally. This intervention is conducted using military forces, police and civilians with the consent of the main belligerents, to complement the diplomatic conflict resolution process and, to restore and maintain peace. (Source: VCDS)
[http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

Тематики
- охрана окружающей среды
EN
- peacekeeping
DE
- Erhaltung des Friedens
FR
- maintien de la paix
Русско-французский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > миротворческие усилия
12 peacekeeping
1. миротворческие усилия
миротворческие усилия
—
[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

EN

peacekeeping
The activities to prevent, contain, moderate and/or terminate the hostilities between or within States, through the medium of an impartial third party intervention, organised and directed internationally. This intervention is conducted using military forces, police and civilians with the consent of the main belligerents, to complement the diplomatic conflict resolution process and, to restore and maintain peace. (Source: VCDS)
[http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

Тематики
- охрана окружающей среды
EN
- peacekeeping
DE
- Erhaltung des Friedens
FR
- maintien de la paix
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > peacekeeping
13 обеспечивать безопасность при более низком уровне ВС

Military: maintain security at a lower level of forces

Универсальный русско-английский словарь > обеспечивать безопасность при более низком уровне ВС
14 поддерживать безопасность при более низком уровне вооружённых сил

Military: maintain security at a lower level of forces

Универсальный русско-английский словарь > поддерживать безопасность при более низком уровне вооружённых сил
15 command

командование (организационная единица, лица руководящего состава), управление; соединение; объединение; группа войск; военный округ; команда, приказание; превосходство; контроль; топ. превышение; командовать; управлять; подавать команды

Data Services (and Administrative) Systems command — командование [управление] статистических (и административно-управленческих) информационных систем

major command, NATO forces — верховное [стратегическое] командование ОВС НАТО

UN command,Rear — командование тыла сил ООН

US Army Forces, Readiness command — СВ командования войск готовности ВС США

— AA artillery command

— abort command

— activation command

— advanced logistical base command

— advanced logistical command

— Aerospace Defense command

— aerospace rescue and recovery command

— air command

— air defense command

— air defense missile command

— Air Force Air Defense command

— Air Force Communications command

— Air Force Electronic Security command

— Air Force Logistics command

— Air Force Weapon Systems Development command

— Air Space Defense command

— Air Training command

— Air Transport command

— air transportable missile command

— airborne command

— air-force command

— Alaskan Air command

— Allied Air Forces command

— Allied command Atlantic

— Allied command

— Allied Forces command

— Allied Joint Submarine Forces and Maritime Patrol Aviation command

— Allied Land Forces command

— Allied Maritime Air Forces Channel command

— Allied Maritime Air Forces command

— Allied Naval command

— Allied Submarine Forces command

— Allied Tactical Air command

— amphibious command

— Antarctic Naval command

— Antisubmarine Defense Forces command

— area command

— area logistics command

— area support command

— arming command

— Armored command

— Army Air Defense command

— Army Armament Materiel Readiness command

— Army Armament R&D command

— Army Aviation Materiel command

— Army Aviation R&D command

— Army Aviations Systems command

— Army Combat Developments command

— Army Combat Developments Experimentation command

— Army command

— Army Communications and Electronics Materiel Readiness command

— Army Communications command

— Army Communications R&D command

— Army Component command

— Army Computer Systems command

— Army Criminal Investigation command

— Army Depot System command

— Army Development and Readiness command

— Army Electronics command

— Army Electronics R&D command

— Army field command

— Army Health Services command

— Army Intelligence and Security command

— Army Intelligence command

— Army International Logistics command

— Army Materiel command

— Army Military Traffic Management command

— Army Missile command

— Army Missile Defense command

— Army Missile Materiel Readiness command

— Army Missile R&D command

— Army Mobility Equipment R&D command

— Army Munitions command

— Army Ordnance Missile command

— Army Recruiting command

— Army Reserve command

— Army Service command

— Army Special Operations command

— Army Strategic Communications command command

— Army Support command

— Army Surveillance and Target Acquisition Training command

— Army Tank-Automotive R&D command

— Army Tank-Automotive Readiness command

— Army Test and Evaluation command

— Army Topographic command

— Army Training and Doctrine Development command

— Army Troop Support and Aviation Materiel Readiness command

— artillery command

— Artillery Support command

— assault command

— assume command

— at my command

— Atlantic command

— Automatic Data Field Systems command

— Aviation Depot Maintenance command

— base command

— base logistical command

— battle command

— binational command

— BM Defense Systems command

— bomber command

— British Logistics Support command

— burst command

— Canal Zone command

— Central command

— check command

— Civil Affairs command

— combat air command

— combat developments command

— combined command

— come under command

— command for operations

— command for tactical employment

— command for training

— Communications and Electronics R&D command

— communications command

— Communications Security command

— Computer Systems command

— Continental Air command

— Continental Signal command

— control command

— corps major medical command

— corps support command

— counter command

— cutoff command

— defense command

— Development command

— dismiss from command

— disrupt commands

— division support command

— domestic command

— drill command

— drop from command

— Eastern command

— educational command

— Electronics Systems command

— emergency command

— engineer amphibious support command

— engineer command

— engineer construction command

— European command

— execution command

— exercise area command

— Experimental Forces command

— field army support command

— field command

— fighter command

— fire command

— fire-out command

— firing command

— Fleet command

— Fleet type command

— force command

— Forces command

— full command

— functional command

— gaining command

— garrison command

— geographical command

— ground force command

— guerrilla command

— guidance command

— Gulf Terminal command

— harbor defense command

— heading command

— heavy missile command

— high command

— higher command

— highest command

— Home Air command

— Home command

— HQ command

— in command of

— independent command

— initiate a command

— inshore warfare command

— integrated military command

— intelligence command

— interallied command

— Interior Forces command

— international HQ support command

— island command

— Joint Air Forces command

— joint command

— Joint High command

— joint maneuver control command

— joint operations command

— Joint Tactical Air command

— jump command

— Land Forces Strategic command

— large command

— lesser command

— line command

— logistical command

— losing command

— maintain a command

— maintenance command

— major ACE subordinate command

— major air command

— major Army field command

— major command

— major subordinate command

— Maneuver and Training command

— maneuver area command

— marching command

— Marine Air Reserve Training command

— Marine Corps Development and Education command

— Marine Corps Development and Evaluation command

— Marine Corps Sea Systems command

— Marine Force Logistic command

— Maritime command

— mass command

— materiel command

— Medical Bioengineering R&D command

— medical command

— Medical R&D command

— medium missile command

— medium-sized command

— Military Airlift command

— Military Assistance command

— military command

— Military Enlistment Processing command

— Military Sealift command

— military zone command

— Mine Countermeasures command

— mine sweeping forces command

— Mine Warfare command

— missile command

— Mobile command

— Mountain and Cold Weather Training command

— MP prisoner-of-war command

— multi-role air command

— multi-service command

— national command

— National Logistic command

— National Military command

— national territorial command

— NATO command

— NATO Early Warning command

— NATO military command

— NATO national command

— Naval Air Materiel command

— Naval Air Systems command

— Naval Air Training command

— Naval Amphibious Training command

— Naval Aviation command

— naval base command

— Naval Civilian Personnel command

— naval command

— Naval Communications command

— Naval Data Automation command

— Naval Electronics Systems command

— Naval Facilities Engineering command

— Naval Home command

— Naval Intelligence command

— Naval Logistics command

— Naval Material command

— Naval Military Personnel command

— Naval Oceanography command

— Naval Recruiting command

— Naval Reserve command

— Naval Sea Systems command

— Naval Security Group command

— Naval Supply Systems command

— Naval Telecommunications command

— Naval Training command

— Navy's Ocean Systems command

— North American Aerospace Defense command

— North American Air Defense command

— Northern command

— Nuclear Weapons Support command

— numbered command

— one-man command

— operational command

— ordnance ammunition command

— Ordnance Weapons command

— organic command

— originating command

— overall command

— overseas command

— personnel command

— place in command

— place under command

— preliminary command

— principal NATO command

— principal subordinate command

— Proving Ground command

— PW command

— QM command

— R&D command

— RAF command

— RAF Home command

— RAF Strike command

— RAF Support command

— RAF Transportation command

— Rapid Reaction Deployable command

— RDF command

— Readiness command

— regional command

— regional operational command

— regional theater command

— Regular Army Strategic command

— reinforcement command

— relieve of command

— relinquish command

— Reserve Component command

— resting command

— retain command

— revert to command

— revoke a command

— River Naval command

— sea command

— sealift command

— semi-automatic command to line-of-sight

— separate command

— service command

— signal command

— single nation command

— sole command

— Southern command

— Space command

— Special Air Service command

— special ammunition support command

— special command

— Special Operations command

— Special Weapons command

— specified command

— Staff command

— stateside command

— strategic aerospace command

— Strategic Air command

— strategic command

— strategic communications command

— Strike Air command

— Strike command

— subordinate command

— succeed in command

— supplementary command

— Supply and Maintenance command

— support air command

— support command

— supranational command

— Supreme command

— suspend from command

— systems command

— Tactical Air command

— tactical command

— take command

— target-vectoring command

— task force command

— temporary command

— terminal steering command

— Territorial command

— theater air defense command

— Theater Airlift command

— Theater Army Area command

— Theater Army Area Logistical command

— Theater Army Civil Affairs command

— Theater Army Communications command

— Theater Army logistical command

— Theater Army Replacement and Training command

— Theater Army Support command

— theater of operations command

— theater troop-carrier command

— TOE command

— topographic command

— training command

— transportation command

— transportation training command

— troop command

— troop support command

— troop-carrier command

— turn over command

— type command

— UN command

— under command

— unified command

— Unified Land Forces command

— unified tactical air command

— uninational command

— uni-service command

— US Army command

— US Army Western command

— US Naval Space command

— US Readiness command

— USAF Aerospace Defense command

— USAF command

— USAF headquarters command

— USAF major command

— USAF Reserve command

— USAF Support command

— vacate command

— vehicle command

— vest command in

— warning command

— Weapons command

— weapons support command

— Western Approaches command

— Western command

— winning command

— zone command

English-Russian military dictionary > command
16 balance

1. n
1) соотношение сил, расстановка сил; равновесие

2) баланс; сальдо; остаток

•

to achieve a balance — достигать равновесия / равенства

to advocate more balance in a country's approach to smth — отстаивать большую объективность в подходе страны к чему-л.

to alter the balance — изменять равновесие / баланс

to be in the balance — быть в неопределенном положении; находиться в подвешенном состоянии

to change the balance of power — изменять соотношение сил

to destroy / to disrupt / to distort / to disturb the balance — нарушать равновесие / баланс

to ensure a balance — обеспечивать равновесие

to establish the balance — устанавливать равновесие

to find a balance of interests — находить баланс интересов

to hang in the balance — висеть на волоске

to hold the balance — осуществлять контроль; распоряжаться; иметь решающее влияние; определять соотношение сил

to keep / to maintain the balance — поддерживать / сохранять равновесие

to reappraise the strategic balance — пересматривать / переоценивать стратегическое равновесие

to redress the balance between — восстанавливать равновесие между

to re-establish / to restore the balance — восстанавливать равновесие

to secure a better strategic balance — добиваться более выгодного военно-стратегического равновесия

to shake the balance of forces — нарушать равновесие / баланс сил

to shift the balance in smb's favor — изменять соотношение сил в чью-л. пользу

to strike a balance between smth — добиваться равновесия между чем-л.

to strike the balance — 1) подводить итог 2) идти на компромисс

to throw off / to tilt the balance — нарушать равновесие / баланс

to tip the balance (against a country) — изменять соотношение сил (не в пользу какой-л. страны)

to tip the existing balance in one's favor — изменять сложившееся соотношение сил в свою пользу

to tip the political balance further to the right — привести к дальнейшему сдвигу вправо

to upset the military strategic balance — нарушать военно-стратегический паритет

- active balance
- adverse balance of trade
- balance of account
- balance of armaments
- balance of class forces
- balance of contingent financing
- balance of conventional forces
- balance of debt
- balance of defense
- balance of deterrence
- balance of direct investment flow
- balance of fixed assets
- balance of forces
- balance of ideology
- balance of international indebtedness
- balance of international payments
- balance of national economy
- balance of nuclear forces
- balance of payments
- balance of political forces
- balance of power
- balance of representation
- balance of social class forces
- balance of strength
- balance of terror
- balance of the account
- balance of the diplomatic platform
- balance of the nuclear deterrent
- balance of trade
- balance of US official reserve assets
- balance of voting
- balance on goods and services
- changed balance of world relations
- concept of power balance
- credit balance
- defensive balance
- delicate balance
- deteriorating balance of payments
- dollar balances
- dominant balance of power
- dynamic balance of power
- ecological balance
- economic balance of power
- economic balance
- ethnic balance
- exchange balance of a country
- existing rough balance of forces
- existing strategic balance
- export balance of trade
- external balance
- favorable balance
- fine ecological balance
- foreign balance
- global balance of nuclear forces
- holder of the balance of power
- import balance of trade
- improvement in the balance of international indebtedness
- internal balance
- maintenance of the existing balance
- military balance
- military-strategic balance
- negative balance
- nuclear balance
- overall balance
- passive balance
- political future of the country hangs in the balance
- precarious balance
- relative balance of forces
- restoration of the balance of power
- shift in the global balance of power
- stable balance
- sterling balances
- strategic balance
- threat to the balance of power
- trade balance
- unfavorable balance
- unobligated balances
- unstable balance of power
- world balance of power
- world-wide balance of power 2. v
1) балансировать, сохранять равновесие

2) приводить в равновесие; уравновешивать; уравнивать

Politics english-russian dictionary > balance
17 balance

I n

1. співвідношення сил, розстановка сил

2. рівновага, баланс, сальдо

3. вирішальний фактор, вирішальне значення

- defensive balance військова рівновага

- delicate balance хитка рівновага

- military balance співвідношення військової могутності (держав або угруповань)

- nuclear balance ядерна рівновага

- overall balance загальна рівновага

- precarious balance нестійка рівновага; нестабільний баланс

- stable balance стабільна/ міцна рівновага

- strategic balance рівність стратегічних сил; військово-стратегічна рівновага

- world balance розстановка сил у світі

- balance of armaments рівновага озброєнь

- balance of conventional forces рівність збройних сил, оснащених звичайними засобами ведення війни

- balance of defence військова рівновага

- balance of the deterrent рівновага залякування

- balance of the diplomatic platform розсадка на дипломатичній трибуні

- balance of forces співвідношення/ рівновага сил

- balance of ideology ідеологічна рівність

- balance of nuclear deterrent рівновага ядерного залякування

- balance of nuclear forces рівновага збройних сил, що мають на озброєнні ядерну зброю

- balance of payments платіжний баланс

- balance of power рівновага сил; співвідношення сил

- balance of representation of the council, etc. рівне представництво (в комітеті тощо)

- balance of strength співвідношення/ рівновага сил

- balance of terror рівновага страху

- balance of trade торговий баланс, торгове сальдо

- balance of voting співвідношення сил в процесі голосування

- changed balance of world relations зміна співвідношення сил у світі

- global balance of nuclear forces глобальний баланс ядерних сил

- concept of balance концепція "балансу сил"

- maintenance of the (existing) balance підтримка (існуючої) рівноваги

- to achieve military balance досягати військової рівноваги/ рівності

- to catch smbd. off balance захопити зненацька/ непідготовленими

- to disturb military balance порушувати військову рівновагу

- to ensure defensive balance забезпечити військову рівновагу

- to hold the balance even зберігати рівновагу

- to keep smbd. off balance тримати когось у стані невизначеності

- to maintain balance of forces підтримувати рівновагу сил

- to reappraise the strategic balance знову оцінити/ переглянути стратегічну рівновагу

- to redress the balance of power відновити рівновагу сил

- to re-establish the balance of power відновити рівновагу сил

- to restore the balance of power відновити рівновагу сил

- to shift the (military) balance in favour of smbd. змінити (військову) рівновагу на чиюсь користь

- to strike a balance підвести підсумок, встановити співвідношення

- to throw off the balance порушити рівновагу

- to tilt the balance порушити рівновагу

- to tip the (military) balance in favour of smb. змінити (військову) рівновагу на чиюсь користь

- to upset the strategic balance порушити військово-стратегічну рівновагу

- on balance враховуючи все сказане, у кінцевому результаті

II v врівноважувати, урівнювати; збалансовувати

- to balance levels of armaments збалансувати рівні озброєння

- to balance the power збалансувати могутність

- to be balanced against компенсуватись чимось

English-Ukrainian diplomatic dictionary > balance
18 service

1. n услужение

domestic service — домашняя работа, обязанности слуги

to be in service — быть слугой, служить

veteran service to the nation — долголетнее служение стране

she was put in service — её отдали в услужение

compassionate service — милосердное служение

priest service — служение священству

2. n работа

hard service — тяжёлая работа

to be out of service — быть без работы

to go out of service — уйти с работы

length of service — стаж работы; срок службы

net service test — проверка работы радиосети

intermittent service — некруглосуточная работа

service work — работа по техническому обслуживанию

general service job — работа по общему обслуживанию

3. n рабочий стаж, срок службы

prolonged meritorious service — выслуга лет

staff field service — полевая служба штабов

Ice Patrol Service — служба ледовых патрулей

continuous service — стаж непрерывной работы

health care service — служба здравоохранения

quartermaster service — интендантская служба

4. n государственная служба

the Civil Service — государственная служба

to be in the Civil Service — быть на гражданской службе

wide area information service — глобальная служба информации

unfitness for military service — негодность к военной службе

terminal information service — служба информации аэровокзала

radar advisory service — служба радиолокационного наблюдения

military-topographic service — военно-топографическая служба

5. n учреждение

information service — информационная служба

reporting services — отдел официальных отчётов

public unity service — коммунальное учреждение

6. n служба

telegraph service — телеграфная связь

communication service — служба связи

railway service, service of trains — железнодорожное сообщение

passenger service — пассажирское сообщение

to restore normal train service — восстановить регулярное движение поездов

to institute a new air service — ввести новую линию воздушного сообщения

card replacement service — служба замены утраченных карточек

airfield maintenance and supply service — аэродромная служба

United Parcel Service — Объединенная служба доставки посылок

radiometeorological service — радиометеорологическая служба

national exchange service — национальная служба книгообмена

7. n обслуживание, сервис

good service at a hotel — хорошее обслуживание в гостинице

prompt service — быстрое обслуживание

to give customers prompt service — быстро обслуживать покупателей

inquiry service — информационное обслуживание

service integration — совмещение обслуживания

service with delay — обслуживание с ожиданием

setup service — подготовительное обслуживание

maintaining service — обеспечение обслуживания

8. n сфера услуг; обслуживание населения; служба быта, сервис

service workers — работники, занятые в сфере обслуживания

service of — обслуживание

guard service — служба охраны

hauling service — служба тяги

service fee — плата за услуги

term of service — срок службы

9. n библиотечное обслуживание

service catalogue — служебный каталог

service technician — специалист по обслуживанию оборудования

service in cyclic order — обслуживание в циклическом порядке

fixed service level — ТМО фиксированный уровень обслуживания

exchange service — обслуживание с использованием коммутатора

constant service control — постоянное сервисное обслуживание

10. n военная служба

National Service

Selective Service — воинская повинность для отдельных граждан

active service, service with the colours — действительная военная служба

to be called up for active service — быть призванным на действительную военную службу

to be in the service — служить в армии

length of service — срок военной службы

fit for service — годен к военной службе

to quit the service — увольняться с военной службы

to be dismissed from the service — быть уволенным с военной службы

to retire from service — выйти в отставку

service ashore — береговая служба

sea service — служба на плавающих кораблях

flight service station — станция службы обеспечения полетов

Aviation Engineering Service — инженерно-авиационная служба

military transportation service — служба военных сообщений

mastering service — служба по изготовлению мастер-образцов

information service unit — информационно-справочная служба

11. n воен. вид вооружённых сил; род войск

the three services — the army, the navy, the aviation — три рода войск: сухопутные войска, военно-морской флот и военно-воздушные силы

correlation of service branches — соотношение родов войск

over-all service — обеспечение всеми видами обслуживания

tactics of service branch — тактика рода войск

Service tactics — тактика вида вооруженных сил

branch service school — школа рода войск

12. n услуга, одолжение; помощь

I am at your service — я к вашим услугам

glad to be of service to you — рад быть вам полезным

will you do me a service? — окажите мне услугу

what good services this pen has done me! — эта ручка мне хорошо послужила!

you do yourself no service by such replies — вы себе только вредите такими ответами

in gratitude for your valuable services — в благодарность за ваши неоценимые услуги

connection-based service — услуги с установлением соединения

travel assistance service — дополнительная дорожная услуга

service advertising protocol — протокол предлагаемых услуг

insurance service charges — сборы за услуги по страхованию

additional service charge — плата за дополнительные услуги

13. n заслуга

great services — большие заслуги

distinguished service order — орден "За боевые заслуги"

14. n сервиз

dinner service — обеденный сервиз

coffee service — кофейный сервиз

15. n прибор

toilet service — туалетный прибор

16. n церк. богослужение, служба

morning service — утренняя служба

burial service — отпевание

marriage service — венчание

baptismal service — крестины

memorial service — заупокойная служба, панихида

to attend a service — присутствовать на богослужении

to conduct a service — вести службу

are you going to service? — ты идёшь в подача мяча

your service! — ваша подача!

church service — богослужение

divine service — богослужение

sacred service — богослужение

time service — служба времени

camp service — лагерная служба

17. n юр. исполнение постановления суда; вручение; судебное извещение

personal service — личное оповещение

substituted service — оповещение по почте

service of execution — приведение в исполнение приговора

service of warrant — вручение судебного приказа, ордера

runtime service — сервис в период исполнения программы

service of process — вручение судебного документа

service of appeal — вручение апелляционной жалобы

18. n с. -х. случка

service period — сервис-период

19. n мор. клетневание

20. n тех. эксплуатация

service instructions — правила эксплуатации

service life — эксплуатационный срок службы

a radio set with free 12 months service — радиоприёмник с гарантией на год

remove from service — выводить из эксплуатации

withdraw from service — снимать с эксплуатации

bringing into service — введение в эксплуатацию

continue in service — оставаться в эксплуатации

introduction into service — ввод в эксплуатацию

21. a военный; относящийся к вооружённым силам

service age — призывной возраст

service aviation — военная авиация

service call — уставной сигнал

service chevron — нашивка за шестимесячную службу на фронте

service families — семьи военнослужащих

service number — личный номер

service record — послужной список

service ribbon — орденская планка

service test — испытания в войсках, войсковые испытания

service troops — войска обслуживания; тыловые части и подразделения

service uniform — повседневная форма одежды

service code — сервисный код

tank service — расходный бак

labor service unit — рабочая сила

fighting service — вид вооруженных сил

service fuel tank — рабочий топливный бак

22. a служебный

service entrance — служебный вход

service call — служебный телефонный разговор

service braking — служебное торможение

radio service code — служебный радиокод

service codegram — служебная кодограмма

service indicator — служебный индикатор

service compartment — служебное отделение

23. a повседневный; прочный, ноский

service dress — повседневное обмундирование

24. a обслуживающий

service trades — профессии, относящиеся к сфере обслуживания

service technicians — обслуживающий персонал

service staff — младший обслуживающий персонал

central service input — главный обслуживающий вход

junior service staff — младший обслуживающий персонал

service computer — обслуживающая вычислительная машина

25. v обслуживать

service a ship — обслуживать корабль

service a vessel — обслуживать корабль

26. v производить осмотр и текущий ремонт

to service a car — обслуживать автомобиль

service stock — текущий запас

service mechanic — техник по ремонту

running service — текущее обслуживание

service shop — мастерская текущего ремонта

service rig — установка для ремонта скважин

27. v заправлять

to service a car with gasoline — заправлять машину горючим

service a truck — заправлять машину

service a tank — заправлять резервуар

28. n бот. рябина домашняя

wild service — кустарник или невысокое дерево с горькими плодами

the stigma attached to domestic service — непрестижность работы домашней прислуги

Синонимический ряд:

1. action (noun) action; combat

2. agency (noun) agency; bureau; commission; department

3. aid (noun) aid; assistance; attendance; cooperation; help; ministration; usefulness; value

4. armed forces (noun) armed forces; military

5. army (noun) army; duty; stint

6. benefit (noun) benefit; utility; wear

7. effort (noun) effort; labor

8. favor (noun) courtesy; dispensation; favor; favour; grace; indulgence; kindness

9. rite (noun) ceremonial; ceremony; formality; liturgy; observance; rite; ritual; sermon; worship

10. tableware (noun) china; set; setting; silver; tableware

11. use (noun) account; advantage; applicability; application; appropriateness; avail; employment; fitness; relevance; serviceability; use; utilisation

12. maintain (verb) maintain; preserve; repair; sustain

English-Russian base dictionary > service
19 Gleichgewicht

n; nur Sg.; auch fig. balance, equilibrium; Gleichgewicht der Kräfte balance of power (PHYS. of forces); gestörtes Gleichgewicht fig. unbalanced state, imbalance; ökologisches Gleichgewicht balance of nature, ecological balance; seelisches Gleichgewicht inner harmony; im Gleichgewicht balanced; das Gleichgewicht (be) halten oder wahren oder sich im Gleichgewicht halten keep one’s balance; fig. stay on an even keel; das Gleichgewicht halten (+ Dat) counterbalance s.o. (oder s.th.); einander das Gleichgewicht halten auch fig. balance each other out; aus dem Gleichgewicht kommen oder das Gleichgewicht verlieren lose one’s balance; fig. be thrown (off balance); aus dem Gleichgewicht bringen (etw.) unbalance; (jemanden) put s.o. off balance; fig. auch throw s.o. (off balance); sich wieder ins Gleichgewicht bringen steady o.s.; fig. get back on an even keel; etw. wieder ins Gleichgewicht bringen fig. put s.th. back on an even keel; das Gleichgewicht wiederherstellen redress the balance

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das Gleichgewicht

equilibration; equilibrium; poise; balance

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Gleich|ge|wicht
nt no pl (lit)
balance, equilibrium (AUCH PHYS, CHEM); (fig) (= Stabilität) balance; (= seelisches Gleichgewicht) equilibrium
im Gléíchgewicht (lit) — balanced, in equilibrium

(wieder) ins Gléíchgewicht kommen (fig) — to become more balanced again; to regain one's equilibrium

das Gléíchgewicht verlieren, aus dem Gléíchgewicht kommen — to lose one's balance or equilibrium (auch fig)

das Gléíchgewicht behalten (lit) — to keep one's balance or equilibrium; (fig) to retain one's equilibrium

jdn aus dem Gléíchgewicht bringen — to throw sb off balance; (fig auch) to disturb sb's equilibrium

das Gléíchgewicht einer Sache wiederherstellen — to get sth back into balance or equilibrium

und... halten — to maintain a proper balance between... and...

das Gléíchgewicht halten (fig) — these things should balance each other out

das Gléíchgewicht der Kräfte — the balance of power

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das

1) (a state of physical steadiness: The child was walking along the wall when he lost his balance and fell.) balance

2) (state of mental or emotional steadiness: The balance of her mind was disturbed.) balance

3) (a state of equal balance between weights, forces etc.) equilibrium

4) (balance and control in bodily movement: Good poise is important for a dancer.) poise

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Gleich·ge·wicht

nt kein pl

1. eines Körpers balance, equilibrium

sein [o das] \Gleichgewicht halten to keep [or maintain] one's balance, to maintain one's equilibrium

im \Gleichgewicht sein to be balanced [or form in equilibrium]

wieder im \Gleichgewicht sein, sich akk wieder im \Gleichgewicht befinden to regain [or recover] one's balance, to restore one's equilibrium

das \Gleichgewicht verlieren, aus dem \Gleichgewicht kommen [o geraten] to lose one's balance

2. (Stabilität, Ausgewogenheit) balance; ÖKON equilibrium

außenwirtschaftliches \Gleichgewicht external equilibrium

militärisches/politisches \Gleichgewicht military/political stability

monetäres \Gleichgewicht monetary equilibrium

natürliches \Gleichgewicht natural balance; ÖKOL balance of nature

ökologisches \Gleichgewicht ecological [or environmental] balance

das \Gleichgewicht der Kräfte the balance of power

ein \Gleichgewicht zwischen... und... halten to maintain a proper balance between... and...

3. (innere Ausgeglichenheit)

das innere [o seelische] \Gleichgewicht one's equilibrium [or emotional balance]

im \Gleichgewicht in equilibrium

jdn aus dem \Gleichgewicht bringen to throw sb off balance

aus dem \Gleichgewicht geraten, das \Gleichgewicht verlieren, aus dem \Gleichgewicht kommen to lose one's equilibrium [or balance]

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das; o. Pl

1) balance

das Gleichgewicht halten/verlieren — keep/lose one's balance

im Gleichgewicht sein — be in equilibrium

2) (Ausgewogenheit) balance

das europäische Gleichgewicht — the balance of power in Europe

das Gleichgewicht der Kräfte — the balance of power

3) (innere Ausgeglichenheit) equilibrium

jemanden aus dem Gleichgewicht bringen — throw somebody off balance

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Gleichgewicht n; nur sg; auch fig balance, equilibrium;

Gleichgewicht der Kräfte balance of power (PHYS of forces);

gestörtes Gleichgewicht fig unbalanced state, imbalance;

ökologisches Gleichgewicht balance of nature, ecological balance;

seelisches Gleichgewicht inner harmony;

im Gleichgewicht balanced;

das Gleichgewicht (be)halten oder

wahren oder

sich im Gleichgewicht halten keep one’s balance; fig stay on an even keel;

das Gleichgewicht halten (+dat) counterbalance sb (oder sth);

einander das Gleichgewicht halten auch fig balance each other out;

aus dem Gleichgewicht kommen oder

das Gleichgewicht verlieren lose one’s balance; fig be thrown (off balance);

aus dem Gleichgewicht bringen (etwas) unbalance; (jemanden) put sb off balance; fig auch throw sb (off balance);

sich wieder ins Gleichgewicht bringen steady o.s.; fig get back on an even keel;

etwas wieder ins Gleichgewicht bringen fig put sth back on an even keel;

das Gleichgewicht wiederherstellen redress the balance

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das; o. Pl

1) balance

das Gleichgewicht halten/verlieren — keep/lose one's balance

im Gleichgewicht sein — be in equilibrium

2) (Ausgewogenheit) balance

das europäische Gleichgewicht — the balance of power in Europe

das Gleichgewicht der Kräfte — the balance of power

3) (innere Ausgeglichenheit) equilibrium

jemanden aus dem Gleichgewicht bringen — throw somebody off balance

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n.

balance n.

equilibrium n.

equipoise n.

Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > Gleichgewicht
20 balance

1. n

1) соотношение сил, расстановка сил; равновесие

- changed balance of world relations

- maintenance of the existing balance

- tip the existing balance in one's favour

- hold the balance

- strike the balance

- upset the balance

2) эк. баланс (торговый, платёжный); сальдо (торгового или платёжного баланса); состояние счёта

- balance on goods and services

•

- balance of international indebtedness

- balance of direct investment flow

- balance of representation

- throw off the balance of power

- balance of payments position

- worldwide balance of power

- balance of payments

- strategic balance

- balance of international payments

- internal balance

- reappraise the strategic balance

- ensure a defensive balance

- balance of voting

- sterling balances

- balance of the diplomatic platform

- restoration of the balance of power

- achieve a military balance

- balance of strength

- upset the balance of power

- balance sheet of national wealth

- dollar balances

- balance of US official reserve assets

- balance of deterrence

- unfavourable balance

- world balance of power

- balance of nuclear forces

- tilt the balance of power

- balance of armaments

- external balance

- balance of payments adjustment

- disturb military balance

- balance of defence

- shift the military balance in favour of smb.

- overall balance

- delicate balance

- defensive balance

- passive balance

- balance of power

- balance of conventional forces

- unstable balance of power

- restore the balance of power

- concept of balance of power

- trade balance

- balance sheet

- dominant balance of power

- exchange balance of a country

- draw up a balance sheet

- balance of trade

- world balance

- stable balance

- establish balance of power

- balance of power systems

- global balance of nuclear forces

- precarious balance

- military balance

- dynamic balance of power

- credit balance

- balance of the account

- balance of terror

- maintain balance of forces

- reestablish the balance of power

- destroy the balance of power

- balance of forces

- redress the balance of power

- balance of debt

- import balance of trade

- balance value

- export balance of trade

- balance of fixed assets

- existing strategic balance

2. v

1) балансировать

2) приводить в равновесие; уравновешивать; уравнивать

- balance levels of armaments

- balance the power

- be balanced by

3) эк. балансировать; уравнивать, уравновешивать; подводить баланс; погашать

- balance foreign trade

English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > balance

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